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			<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading">Common Intermediate Language</h1>
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				<div dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en"><div class="dablink">For the counterpart to compiled assembly in the Microsoft .NET framework, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_assembly" title=".NET assembly">.NET assembly</a>.</div>
<p><b>Common Intermediate Language</b> (<b>CIL</b>, pronounced either "sil" or "kil") (formerly called <b>Microsoft Intermediate Language</b> or <b>MSIL</b>) is the lowest-level <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-readable" title="Human-readable" class="mw-redirect">human-readable</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> defined by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">Common Language Infrastructure</a> (CLI) specification and is used by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework" title=".NET Framework">.NET Framework</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_%28software%29" title="Mono (software)">Mono</a>. Languages which target a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">CLS</a>-compatible runtime environment compile to CIL, which is assembled into an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_code" title="Object code">object code</a> that has a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode</a>-style format. CIL is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented" title="Object-oriented" class="mw-redirect">object-oriented</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a>, and is entirely <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_machine" title="Stack machine">stack-based</a>. Its bytecode is translated into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_code" title="Native code" class="mw-redirect">native code</a> or executed by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a>.</p>
<p>CIL was originally known as Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) 
during the beta releases of the .NET languages. Due to standardization 
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">Common Language Infrastructure</a>, the bytecode is now officially known as CIL.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<table id="toc" class="toc">
<tbody><tr>
<td>
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle">&nbsp;[<a href="#" class="internal" id="togglelink">hide</a>]&nbsp;</span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#General_information"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">General information</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Instructions"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Instructions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Computational_model"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Computational model</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Object-oriented_concepts"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Object-oriented concepts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Metadata"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Metadata</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Example"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Example</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Generation"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Generation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Execution"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Execution</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Just-in-time_compilation"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Just-in-time compilation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Ahead-of-time_compilation"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ahead-of-time compilation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: General information">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="General_information">General information</span></h2>
<p>During compilation of .NET programming languages, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> is translated into CIL code rather than platform or processor-specific <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_file" title="Object file">object code</a>. CIL is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU" title="CPU" class="mw-redirect">CPU</a>-
 and platform-independent instruction set that can be executed in any 
environment supporting the Common Language Infrastructure,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">.NET runtime</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a>, or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform" title="Cross-platform">cross-platform</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_%28software%29" title="Mono (software)">Mono</a>
 runtime. In theory, this eliminates the need to distribute different 
executable files for different platforms and CPU types. CIL code is 
verified for safety during runtime, providing better security and 
reliability than natively compiled executable files.</p>
<p>The execution process looks like this:</p>
<ol>
<li>Source code is converted to Common Intermediate Language, CIL's equivalent to Assembly language for a CPU.</li>
<li>CIL is then assembled into a form of so called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode</a> and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_assembly" title=".NET assembly">.NET assembly</a> is created.</li>
<li>Upon execution of a .NET assembly, its code is passed through the 
runtime's JIT compiler to generate native code. Ahead-of-time 
compilation may also be used, which eliminates this step, but at the 
cost of executable file portability.</li>
<li>The native code is executed by the computer's processor.</li>
</ol>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Instructions">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Instructions">Instructions</span></h2>
<div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CIL_instructions" title="List of CIL instructions">List of CIL instructions</a></div>
<p>CIL bytecode has <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_%28computer_science%29" title="Instruction (computer science)" class="mw-redirect">instructions</a> for the following groups of tasks:</p>
<ul>
<li>Load and store</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">Arithmetic</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_conversion" title="Type conversion">Type conversion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_memory_allocation" title="Dynamic memory allocation" class="mw-redirect">Object creation and manipulation</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_%28data_structure%29" title="Stack (data structure)" class="mw-redirect">Operand stack management (push / pop)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch_%28computer_science%29" title="Branch (computer science)">Control transfer (branching)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine" title="Subroutine">Method invocation and return</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">Throwing exceptions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitor_%28synchronization%29" title="Monitor (synchronization)">Monitor-based concurrency</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Computational model">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Computational_model">Computational model</span></h2>
<p>The Common Intermediate Language is object-oriented and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack-based" title="Stack-based" class="mw-redirect">stack-based</a>. That means that data is pushed on a stack instead of pulled from registers like in most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_architecture" title="CPU architecture" class="mw-redirect">CPU architectures</a>.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a> it might look like this:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="asm source-asm">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw1">add</span> <span class="kw3">eax</span><span class="sy0">,</span> <span class="kw3">edx</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The corresponding code in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_language" title="Intermediate language">IL</a> can be rendered as this:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0
<span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.1
<span class="kw6">add</span>
<span class="kw6">stloc</span>.0    <span class="co0">// a = a + b or a += b;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Here are two locals that are pushed on the stack. When the 
add-instruction is called the operands get popped and the result is 
pushed. The remaining value is then popped and stored in the first 
local.</p>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Object-oriented concepts">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Object-oriented_concepts">Object-oriented concepts</span></h3>
<p>This extends to object-oriented concepts as well. You may create 
objects, call methods and use other types of members such as fields.</p>
<p>CIL is designed to be object-oriented and every <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_%28programming%29" title="Method (programming)" class="mw-redirect">method</a> needs (with some exceptions) to reside in a class. So does this static method:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw1">.class</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> Foo
<span class="br0">{</span>
    <span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> <span class="kw2">static</span> <span class="kw3">int32</span> Add<span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span>, <span class="kw3">int32</span><span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        <span class="kw1">.maxstack</span> <span class="nu0">2</span>
        <span class="kw6">ldarg</span>.0 <span class="co0">// load the first argument;</span>
        <span class="kw6">ldarg</span>.1 <span class="co0">// load the second argument;</span>
        <span class="kw6">add</span>     <span class="co0">// add them;</span>
        <span class="kw6">ret</span>     <span class="co0">// return the result;</span>
    <span class="br0">}</span>
<span class="br0">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This method does not require any instance of Foo to be declared 
because it is static. That means it belongs to the class and it may then
 be used like this in C#:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="csharp source-csharp">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw4">int</span> r <span class="sy0">=</span> Foo<span class="sy0">.</span><span class="me1">Add</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="nu0">2</span>, <span class="nu0">3</span><span class="br0">)</span><span class="sy0">;</span>    <span class="co1">// 5</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>In CIL:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.2
<span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.3
<span class="kw6">call</span> <span class="kw3">int32</span> Foo::<span class="me1">Add</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span>, <span class="kw3">int32</span><span class="br0">)</span>
<span class="kw6">stloc</span>.0
</pre></div>
</div>
<p><b>Instance classes</b></p>
<p>An instance class contains at least one constructor and some instance
 members. This class has a set of methods representing actions of a 
Car-object.</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw1">.class</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> Car
<span class="br0">{</span>
    <span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> <span class="kw2">specialname</span> <span class="kw2">rtspecialname</span> <span class="kw2">instance</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> <span class="kw1">.ctor</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span>, <span class="kw3">int32</span><span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        /* Constructor */
    <span class="br0">}</span>
 
    <span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Move<span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span><span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        /* Omitting implementation */
    <span class="br0">}</span>
 
    <span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> TurnRight<span class="br0">(</span><span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        /* Omitting implementation */
    <span class="br0">}</span>
 
    <span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> TurnLeft<span class="br0">(</span><span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        /* Omitting implementation */
    <span class="br0">}</span>
 
    <span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">public</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Brake<span class="br0">(</span><span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        /* Omitting implementation */
    <span class="br0">}</span>
<span class="br0">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p><b>Creating objects</b></p>
<p>In C# class instances are created like this:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="csharp source-csharp">
<pre class="de1">Car myCar <span class="sy0">=</span> <span class="kw3">new</span> Car<span class="br0">(</span><span class="nu0">1</span>, <span class="nu0">4</span><span class="br0">)</span><span class="sy0">;</span> 
Car yourCar <span class="sy0">=</span> <span class="kw3">new</span> Car<span class="br0">(</span><span class="nu0">1</span>, <span class="nu0">3</span><span class="br0">)</span><span class="sy0">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>And these statements are roughly the same as these instructions:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.1
<span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.4
<span class="kw7">newobj</span> <span class="kw2">instance</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Car::<span class="kw1">.ctor</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int</span>, <span class="kw3">int</span><span class="br0">)</span>
<span class="kw6">stloc</span>.0    <span class="co0">// myCar = new Car(1, 4);</span>
<span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.1
<span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.3
<span class="kw7">newobj</span> <span class="kw2">instance</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Car::<span class="kw1">.ctor</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int</span>, <span class="kw3">int</span><span class="br0">)</span>
<span class="kw6">stloc</span>.1    <span class="co0">// yourCar = new Car(1, 3);</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p><b>Invoking instance methods</b></p>
<p>Instance methods are invoked like the one that follows:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="csharp source-csharp">
<pre class="de1">myCar<span class="sy0">.</span><span class="me1">Move</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="nu0">3</span><span class="br0">)</span><span class="sy0">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>In CIL:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0    <span class="co0">// Load the object "myCar" on the stack</span>
<span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.3
<span class="kw6">call</span> <span class="kw2">instance</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Car::<span class="me1">Move</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span><span class="br0">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Metadata">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Metadata">Metadata</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_metadata" title=".NET metadata">.NET metadata</a></div>
<p>.NET records information about compiled classes as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a>. Like the type library in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_Object_Model" title="Component Object Model">Component Object Model</a>,
 this enables applications to support and discover the interfaces, 
classes, types, methods, and fields in the assembly. The process of 
reading such metadata is called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_science%29" title="Reflection (computer science)" class="mw-redirect">reflection</a></i>.</p>
<p>Metadata can be data in the form of <i>attributes</i>. Attributes can be custom made by extending from the <code>Attribute</code> class. This is a very powerful feature.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Example">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Example">Example</span></h2>
<p>Below is a basic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_World" title="Hello, World" class="mw-redirect">Hello, World</a> program written in CIL. It will display the string "Hello, world!".</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw1">.assembly</span> Hello <span class="br0">{</span><span class="br0">}</span>
<span class="kw1">.assembly</span> <span class="kw2">extern</span> mscorlib <span class="br0">{</span><span class="br0">}</span>
<span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">static</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Main<span class="br0">(</span><span class="br0">)</span>
<span class="br0">{</span>
    <span class="kw1">.entrypoint</span>
    <span class="kw1">.maxstack</span> <span class="nu0">1</span>
    <span class="kw7">ldstr</span> <span class="st0">"Hello, world!"</span>
    <span class="kw6">call</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> <span class="br0">[</span>mscorlib<span class="br0">]</span>System.Console::<span class="me1">WriteLine</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">string</span><span class="br0">)</span>
    <span class="kw6">call</span> <span class="kw3">string</span><span class="br0">[</span>mscorlib<span class="br0">]</span>System.Console::<span class="me1">ReadLine</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="br0">)</span>
    <span class="kw6">pop</span>
    <span class="kw6">ret</span>
<span class="br0">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The following code is more complex in number of opcodes.</p>
<p><i>This code can also be compared with the corresponding code in the article about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_bytecode" title="Java bytecode">Java bytecode</a>.</i></p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="csharp source-csharp">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw1">static</span> <span class="kw4">void</span> Main<span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw4">string</span><span class="br0">[</span><span class="br0">]</span> args<span class="br0">)</span>
<span class="br0">{</span>
outer<span class="sy0">:</span>
    <span class="kw1">for</span> <span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw4">int</span> i <span class="sy0">=</span> <span class="nu0">2</span><span class="sy0">;</span> i <span class="sy0">&lt;</span> <span class="nu0">1000</span><span class="sy0">;</span> i<span class="sy0">++</span><span class="br0">)</span>
    <span class="br0">{</span>
        <span class="kw1">for</span> <span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw4">int</span> j <span class="sy0">=</span> <span class="nu0">2</span><span class="sy0">;</span> j <span class="sy0">&lt;</span> i<span class="sy0">;</span> j<span class="sy0">++</span><span class="br0">)</span>
        <span class="br0">{</span>
             <span class="kw1">if</span> <span class="br0">(</span>i <span class="sy0">%</span> j <span class="sy0">==</span> <span class="nu0">0</span><span class="br0">)</span>
                 <span class="kw1">goto</span> outer<span class="sy0">;</span>
        <span class="br0">}</span>
        Console<span class="sy0">.</span><span class="me1">WriteLine</span><span class="br0">(</span>i<span class="br0">)</span><span class="sy0">;</span>
    <span class="br0">}</span>
<span class="br0">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>In CIL syntax it looks like this:</p>
<div dir="ltr" class="mw-geshi" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="cil source-cil">
<pre class="de1"><span class="kw1">.method</span> <span class="kw2">private</span> <span class="kw2">hidebysig</span> <span class="kw2">static</span> <span class="kw3">void</span> Main<span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">string</span><span class="br0">[</span><span class="br0">]</span> args<span class="br0">)</span> <span class="kw2">cil</span> <span class="kw2">managed</span>
<span class="br0">{</span>
    <span class="kw1">.entrypoint</span>
    <span class="kw1">.maxstack</span>  <span class="nu0">2</span>
    <span class="kw1">.locals</span> <span class="kw2">init</span> <span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span> V_0,
                  <span class="kw3">int32</span> V_1<span class="br0">)</span>
 
    IL_0000:  <span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.2
              <span class="kw6">stloc</span>.0
              <span class="kw6">br</span>.<span class="kw5">s</span>       IL_001f
    IL_0004:  <span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.2
              <span class="kw6">stloc</span>.1
              <span class="kw6">br</span>.<span class="kw5">s</span>       IL_0011
    IL_0008:  <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0
              <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.1
              <span class="kw6">rem</span>
              <span class="kw6">brfalse</span>.<span class="kw5">s</span>  IL_0000
              <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.1
              <span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.1
              <span class="kw6">add</span>
              <span class="kw6">stloc</span>.1
    IL_0011:  <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.1
              <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0
              <span class="kw6">blt</span>.<span class="kw5">s</span>      IL_0008
              <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0
              <span class="kw6">call</span>       <span class="kw3">void</span> <span class="br0">[</span>mscorlib<span class="br0">]</span>System.Console::<span class="me1">WriteLine</span><span class="br0">(</span><span class="kw3">int32</span><span class="br0">)</span>
              <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0
              <span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>.1
              <span class="kw6">add</span>
              <span class="kw6">stloc</span>.0
    IL_001f:  <span class="kw6">ldloc</span>.0
              <span class="kw6">ldc</span>.<span class="kw5">i4</span>     0x3e8
              <span class="kw6">blt</span>.<span class="kw5">s</span>      IL_0004
              <span class="kw6">ret</span>
<span class="br0">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This is just a representation of how CIL looks like near VM-level. 
When compiled the methods are stored in tables and the instructions are 
stored as bytes inside the assembly, which is a Portable Executable-file
 (PE).</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Generation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Generation">Generation</span></h2>
<p>A CIL assembly and instructions are generated by either a compiler or a utility called the <i>IL Assembler</i> (ILASM) that is shipped with the execution environment.</p>
<p>Assembled IL can also be disassembled into code again using the <i>IL Disassembler</i> (ILDASM). There are other tools such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Reflector" title=".NET Reflector">.NET Reflector</a> that can decompile IL into a high-level language (e.g. C# or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic_.NET" title="Visual Basic .NET">Visual Basic</a>). This makes IL a very easy target for reverse engineering. This trait is shared with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_bytecode" title="Java bytecode">Java bytecode</a>. However, there are tools that can <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obfuscated_code" title="Obfuscated code">obfuscate</a> the code, and do it so that the code cannot be easily readable but still be runnable.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Execution">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Execution">Execution</span></h2>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Just-in-time compilation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Just-in-time_compilation">Just-in-time compilation</span></h3>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">Just-in-time compilation</a>
 involves turning the byte-code into code immediately executable by the 
CPU. The conversion is performed gradually during the program's 
execution. JIT compilation provides environment-specific optimization, 
runtime type safety, and assembly verification. To accomplish this, the 
JIT compiler examines the assembly metadata for any illegal accesses and
 handles violations appropriately.</p>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Ahead-of-time compilation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Ahead-of-time_compilation">Ahead-of-time compilation</span></h3>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">CLI</a>-compatible execution environments also come with the option to do a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahead-of-time_compilation" title="Ahead-of-time compilation" class="mw-redirect">Ahead-of-time compilation</a> (AOT) of an assembly to make it execute faster by removing the JIT process at runtime.</p>
<p>In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework" title=".NET Framework">.NET Framework</a> there is a special tool called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Image_Generator" title="Native Image Generator">Native Image Generator</a> (NGEN) that performs the AOT. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_%28programming%29" title="Mono (programming)" class="mw-redirect">Mono</a> there is also an option to do an AOT.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CIL_instructions" title="List of CIL instructions">List of CIL instructions</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-335.htm">Common Language Infrastructure (Standard ECMA-335)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/netframework/aa569283.aspx">“ECMA C# and Common Language Infrastructure Standards” on MSDN</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Computer_Programming/Hello_world#CIL" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Computer Programming/Hello world">Hello world program in CIL</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weblogs.asp.net/kennykerr/archive/2004/09/07/introduction-to-msil-part-1-hello-world.aspx">Kenny Kerr's intro to CIL (called MSIL in the tutorial)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/cc163808.aspx">Speed: NGen Revs Up Your Performance With Powerful New Features -- MSDN Magazine, April 2005</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Intermediate_Language&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="#cite_ref-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interviewcity.com/2010/04/what-is-intermediate-languageilmsilcil.html">"What is Intermediate Language(IL)/MSIL/CIL in .NET"</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.interviewcity.com/2010/04/what-is-intermediate-languageilmsilcil.html">http://www.interviewcity.com/2010/04/what-is-intermediate-languageilmsilcil.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2011-02-17</span>.
 "CIL: ... When we compile [a] .NET project, it [is] not directly 
converted to binary code but to the intermediate language. When a 
project is run, every language of .NET programming is converted is 
converted into binary code into CIL. Only some part of CIL that is 
required at run time is converted into binary code. DLL and EXE of .NET 
are also in CIL form."</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+Intermediate+Language%28IL%29%2FMSIL%2FCIL+in+.NET&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.interviewcity.com%2F2010%2F04%2Fwhat-is-intermediate-languageilmsilcil.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Common_Intermediate_Language"><span style="display: none;">&nbsp;</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <span class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.at/books?id=VGT1_UJzjM0C&amp;pg=PA15&amp;lpg=PA15&amp;dq=CIL+is+platform-independent#v=onepage&amp;q=CIL%20is%20platform-independent&amp;f=false"><i>Benefits of CIL</i></a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://books.google.at/books?id=VGT1_UJzjM0C&amp;pg=PA15&amp;lpg=PA15&amp;dq=CIL+is+platform-independent#v=onepage&amp;q=CIL%20is%20platform-independent&amp;f=false">http://books.google.at/books?id=VGT1_UJzjM0C&amp;pg=PA15&amp;lpg=PA15&amp;dq=CIL+is+platform-independent#v=onepage&amp;q=CIL%20is%20platform-independent&amp;f=false</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2011-02-17</span>. "Furthermore, given that CIL is platform-agnostic, .NET itself is platform-agnostic..."</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Benefits+of+CIL&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.at%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVGT1_UJzjM0C%26pg%3DPA15%26lpg%3DPA15%26dq%3DCIL%2Bis%2Bplatform-independent%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DCIL%2520is%2520platform-independent%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Common_Intermediate_Language"><span style="display: none;">&nbsp;</span></span></li>
</ol>
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<th style="" colspan="2" class="navbox-title"><span class="collapseButton">[<a href="#" id="collapseButton0">hide</a>]</span><span style="float:left;width:6em;text-align:left;"><span class="noprint plainlinks navbar" style=""><span style="white-space:nowrap;word-spacing:-.12em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:.NET" title="Template:.NET"><span style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;font-size:100%;" title="View this template">v</span></a> <span style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;font-size:100%;"><b>·</b></span> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:.NET" title="Template talk:.NET"><span style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;font-size:100%;" title="Discuss this template">d</span></a> <span style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;font-size:100%;"><b>·</b></span> <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:.NET&amp;action=edit"><span style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;font-size:100%;" title="Edit this template">e</span></a></span></span></span><span class="" style="font-size:110%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework" title=".NET Framework">.NET Framework</a></span></th>
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<td class="navbox-group" style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">Architecture</a></td>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Class_Library" title="Base Class Library">Base Class Library</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Access_Security" title="Code Access Security">Code Access Security</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_assembly" title=".NET assembly">Assembly</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_metadata" title=".NET metadata">Metadata</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COM_Interop" title="COM Interop">COM Interop</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="line-height:1.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">Common Language<br>
Infrastructure (CLI)</a></div>
</td>
<td style="text-align: left; border-left-width: 2px; border-left-style: solid; width: 100%; padding: 0px;" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">Common Language Infrastructure</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Type_System" title="Common Type System">Common Type System</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Common Intermediate Language</strong></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Execution_System" title="Virtual Execution System">Virtual Execution System</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CLI_languages" title="List of CLI languages">CLI Languages</a></td>
<td style="text-align: left; border-left-width: 2px; border-left-style: solid; width: 100%; padding: 0pt;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div>
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<tbody><tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style="padding: 0.25em 0pt; font-weight: normal;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Common<sup><small>1</small></sup></div>
</td>
<td style="text-align: left; border-left-width: 2px; border-left-style: solid; width: 100%; padding: 0.25em 0pt; line-height: 1.4em;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic_.NET" title="Visual Basic .NET">Visual Basic .NET</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B/CLI" title="C++/CLI">C++/CLI</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_Extensions_for_C%2B%2B" title="Managed Extensions for C++">Managed</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F_Sharp_%28programming_language%29" title="F Sharp (programming language)">F#</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J_Sharp" title="J Sharp">J#</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JScript_.NET" title="JScript .NET">JScript .NET</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_PowerShell" title="Windows PowerShell">Windows PowerShell</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style="padding: 0.25em 0pt; font-weight: normal;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Other<sup><small>2</small></sup></div>
</td>
<td style="text-align: left; border-left-width: 2px; border-left-style: solid; width: 100%; padding: 0.25em 0pt; line-height: 1.4em;" class="navbox-list navbox-even">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axum_%28programming_language%29" title="Axum (programming language)">Axum</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sharp_%28.NET%29" title="A Sharp (.NET)">A#</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boo_%28programming_language%29" title="Boo (programming language)">Boo</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobra_%28programming_language_from_Cobra_Language_LLC%29" title="Cobra (programming language from Cobra Language LLC)">Cobra</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_%28programming_language%29" title="M (programming language)">M</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygene_%28programming_language%29" title="Oxygene (programming language)">Oxygene</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IronScheme" title="IronScheme">IronScheme</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IronLisp" title="IronLisp">IronLisp</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IronPython" title="IronPython">IronPython</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IronRuby" title="IronRuby">IronRuby</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemerle" title="Nemerle">Nemerle</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanger_%28compiler%29" title="Phalanger (compiler)">Phalanger</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P_Sharp" title="P Sharp">P#</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
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<tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></td>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADO.NET" title="ADO.NET">ADO.NET</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADO.NET_Entity_Framework" title="ADO.NET Entity Framework">Entity Framework</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WCF_Data_Services" title="WCF Data Services">Data Services</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASP.NET" title="ASP.NET">ASP.NET</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASP.NET_AJAX" title="ASP.NET AJAX">AJAX</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASP.NET_MVC_Framework" title="ASP.NET MVC Framework">MVC</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASP.NET_Dynamic_Data" title="ASP.NET Dynamic Data">Dynamic Data</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Integrated_Query" title="Language Integrated Query">Language Integrated Query</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CardSpace" title="Windows CardSpace">CardSpace</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ClickOnce" title="ClickOnce">ClickOnce</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Communication_Foundation" title="Windows Communication Foundation">Communication Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Language_Runtime" title="Dynamic Language Runtime">Dynamic Language Runtime</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Forms" title="Windows Forms">Forms</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Presentation_Foundation" title="Windows Presentation Foundation">Presentation Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Remoting" title=".NET Remoting">Remoting</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Workflow_Foundation" title="Windows Workflow Foundation">Workflow Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Application_Markup_Language" title="Extensible Application Markup Language">XAML</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Extensions" title="Parallel Extensions">Parallel Extensions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_Extensibility_Framework" title="Managed Extensibility Framework">Managed Extensibility Framework</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style="">Other implementations</td>
<td style="text-align: left; border-left-width: 2px; border-left-style: solid; width: 100%; padding: 0px;" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_%28software%29" title="Mono (software)">Mono</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Compact_Framework" title=".NET Compact Framework">Compact Framework</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_XNA" title="Microsoft XNA">XNA Framework</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Micro_Framework" title=".NET Micro Framework">Micro Framework</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable.NET" title="Portable.NET">Portable.NET</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Silverlight" title="Microsoft Silverlight">Silverlight</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_Source_Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Shared Source Common Language Infrastructure">SSCLI</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DotGNU" title="DotGNU">DotGNU</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style="">Comparisons</td>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_C_Sharp_and_Java" title="Comparison of C Sharp and Java">Java and C#</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_C_Sharp_and_Visual_Basic_.NET" title="Comparison of C Sharp and Visual Basic .NET">C# and Visual Basic .NET</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_Java_and_.NET_platforms" title="Comparison of the Java and .NET platforms">Java and .NET platforms</a></li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_codename_%22Jasper%22" title="Microsoft codename &quot;Jasper&quot;">"Jasper"</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_codename_%22Roslyn%22" title="Microsoft codename &quot;Roslyn&quot;">"Roslyn"</a></li>
</ul>
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</tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
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<td class="navbox-group" style="">Past</td>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_codename_%22Acropolis%22" title="Microsoft codename &quot;Acropolis&quot;">"Acropolis"</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-group" style="">Tools</td>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLR_Profiler" title="CLR Profiler">CLR Profiler</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" style="padding: 0.4em 0.2em 0.2em; line-height: 1.2em;" colspan="2">
<div><sup><small>1</small></sup> Languages that had been supported, is supported, or will be supported, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_Studio" title="Microsoft Visual Studio">Visual Studio</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.Net_Framework" title=".Net Framework" class="mw-redirect">.Net Framework</a>.<br>
<sup><small>2</small></sup> Non-academic or research languages with relatively large user-bases.</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>


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